Modernism Overview

Modernism gathered pace from about 1850. Characterised by constant innovation, its key period in western society was during the 1920s and 30s. Collection Tate website proposes it was the design movement of the machine age that embraced purity, new technologies, eschewing ornamentation and historicism (n.d.). Modernists believed in good design for everyone. Modernism was a term that covered a range of movements, flourishing in many European countries, eventually America and world wide. These relating art movements emerged as the dominant style of the 20^th century, influencing all areas of art & design.

         

In Vienna 1903, Josef Hoffmann and Koloman Moser established the Wiener Werkstatte. This evolved from the Vienna Secession, 1897, a group of artists and designers that rejected floral ornamentation of the French Art Nouveau. Instead they adopted geometric patterns and simplified shapes. The Wiener Werkstatte produced ceramics, furniture, metalwork and more. In Hoffmann’s words, they were dedicated to the ‘pursuit of art and quality in all the crafts’ (Aynsley J, 2004 p.32). As outlined by Denzer, this philosophy was also reflected by the influence of William Morris who believed in well made, hand crafted goods. Following the group’s motto ‘better to work ten days on one product than to manufacture 10 products in one day’ (n.d).

By the 1920s, designers began embracing new technologies and materials. Walter Gropius founded German art school, Bauhaus in 1919. Gropius aimed to reunite art with crafts in the aftermath of WW1. As mentioned in the Bauhaus’s programme, Gropius states,

'Architects, painters, sculptors, we must all return to crafts! ... Let us therefore create a new guild of craftsmen’s without the class distinctions that raise an arrogant barrier between craftsman and artist! Let us together desire, conceive and create the building of the future, which will combine everything – architecture, sculpture and painting – in a single form which will one day rise towards heavens from the hands of a million workers as the crystalline symbol of a new and coming faith'  

(Walter Gropius, 1919, cited in Wingler, H.M, 1969, p.31)

With workshops dedicated to wood, metal and ceramics. Students examined the physical properties, respecting the idea of ‘truth to materials’.  Its approach to art education continues to affect the teaching in many art schools today.

De Stijl, Holland, 1917. This movement was based around a magazine of the same name. It was edited by painter/architect, Theo van Doesburg running from 1917 to 1931. They aimed to express the idea of spiritual harmony within form, geometry, and colour. As mentioned by Wilk, they were influenced by the theories of Piet Mondrian, an ardent Theosophist who sought to create an aesthetic parallel to his spiritual beliefs (2008). Mondrian’s work consisted of, grids of primary colours, horizontal and vertical black lines; following the idea to go beyond nature, creating pure form that all could appreciate.

        

El Lissitzky associated with the Constructivists, 1919. This movement emphasised political and communist utopia. According to Wilk communist utopia primarily relates to countries where the socialist revolution has been accomplished, such as Russia where this movement originated. Lenin and the Bolsheviks promoted a vision of the future that emphasized the new egalitarian and collective society (2008). After the 1917 Revolution, Lissitzky and other Constructivists aimed create a new artistic language, developing from Cubism and Russian Futurism. Constructivists created simple, machine like, graphics based from geometry.

Visual Examples

It was not only art that followed Modernist principles; Modernism also influenced typography. Marked by the principle of ‘form follows function’ a phrase by architect Louis Sullivan, who believed the structure of a building or object, should dictate the form and its external appearance.

     Herbert Bayer’s Universal typeface reflected this idea in both form and name. A student at the Bauhaus, Bayer designed Universal in 1925, a simple, sans serif typeface that would aid all communication within the Bauhaus. It utilizes geometry in the form of each letter, using straight lines at a 45 degree angle and the circle. Whitford, F informs us that Bayer was trying to rationalize writing; a lower case alphabet was used because it only required one alphabet instead of two (1984).

      Source: see references                          Universal, 1925

The use of geometry in Modernism was as important in El Lissitzky’s work. This can be seen in his propaganda poster ‘Beat the whites with the red wedge’ 1919. Used during the Russian Civil War, it utilizes the geometric motif of a large red triangle which is penetrating their opponent the white circle. A visual language of primary colours, pure geometry, which communicates a political message everyone could understand. 
     

Beat the Whites with the Red Wedge, 1919

From the turmoil following WW1, many artists aimed to express a utopian view of a better world.

'As if by magic, a new unity in art had developed in Europe during the isolation of the war years. Now that the war was over, a kind of aesthetic brotherhood suddenly emerged….there was one common purpose to, start from the beginning again by returning to the most elementary and basic concepts and to build something new upon the fundamentals.'

(Hans Richter, Dada Profile 1961, p.27)

The De Stijl movement sought to create this idea based on spiritual harmony within geometry, form and colour. Also applying to objects, the Red Blue Chair 1917 was designed by Gerrit Rietveld. Constructed from wood, Rietveld examined the relation between vertical, horizontal lines. A primary colour scheme, the areas of colour made the chair appear to float, giving it a transparent structure. As indicated by The Museum of Modern Art, rather than focusing on physical comfort, Rietveld believed in the greater goal of well being and comfort of the spirit (2004).

                                            The Red Blue Chair, 1917    
                                                           Source: see references

The importance of craft was a key concept within Modernism.  The Wiener Werkstatte emphasised fine craftsmanship in all their works. The workshop was successful for producing furniture and objects. The Sitzmaschine Armchair, 1905 designed by Josef Hoffmann for his Purkersdorf Sanatorium.  Following William Morris’s principle of quality, hand crafted design. Made from bentwood, this chair unitizes quality material, rectilinear forms contrast with thin curved lines. Moma highlights that the ball motif reinforces the design of the chair and becomes a decorative element itself (2004).

                                               The Sitzmaschine Armchair, 1905  
                                                              Source: see references

  

The workshops ability to change with the times perhaps accounts for its long success. Initially Hoffmann and Moser sought to create a geometric functional style. Gabriele informs us that the departure of co-founder Koloman Moser in 1907 was a turning point for the Wiener Werkstatte, a more decorative aesthetic was introduced (2003). Hoffmann’s style became more fluid and ornamental. This can be seen especially in his Brooch 1908. Semi precious stones were used for beauty instead of value. Although much more ornamental than his previous works, there is still emphasis on geometry. National Gallery Victoria implies the square composition employs symmetry; vertical lines are used to give a sense of monumentality despite its size (2011).

                                         Brooch, 1908

                                     part 3 citations and quotes are already distributed in each section.

Critical Analysis

Modernists produced work that would have a real impact on people’s lives, influencing every form of design, from graphics to architecture as well as literature and music. Wilk argues that Modernism was not conceived as a style, but was a loose collection of ideas (2008). These ideas included visions of utopia, exploring new materials, simplification of form by reducing ornament and aesthetic of machine age. In contrast to Wilks statement, artists did develop their own style following these ideas. With mentor Kazimir Malevich, El Lissitzky developed Suprematism, 1915. Aynsley reports that this style focused on abstract, geometric forms of flat colour (2004.) ‘Beat the whites with the red wedge’ conform to the modernist ideology of pure geometry, communicating a powerful message that would be left in the viewers mind.

  William Morris was an important figure in the development of Modernism. Reacting against mass production but returning to well made hand crafted goods. ‘Have nothing in your homes that you do not know to be useful and believe to be beautiful’, (Morris, 1880. cited in Aynsley, J, 2004, p.52). In this statement Morris outlined that utility was as important as beauty. Hoffman published a brochure, also outlining this philosophy in 1905:

‘We start with function, usefulness is our first requirement. Our strength lies    in good proportions and proper use of materials…… we shall attempt to be decorative, but not compulsively so and not at any cost. The value of artistic work and design needs to be acknowledged and appreciated once more…. We cannot and will not compete with cheapness; it is mainly achieved at the expense of the worker, and we feel that recapturing for him the joy of creation and a humane existence is our foremost obligation…’

 (Hoffmann, 1905 cited in Gabriele, p.12 (2003).

Although Hoffmann states function is his first requirement, his Brooch 1908 overrides this statement. In this piece, instead of function the importance of materials he adopted came first. He carefully balanced elements of colour and shape. Using semi precious stones the brooch was indented to convey beauty rather than wealth and status. Following Wilks statement, this shows that Modernists did not always have to conform to a set standard to produce good design,

The aesthetics and ideology of Modernist ideas have shaped the environment we live in, its characteristics and tendency towards simplification have transformed globally into a visual language that we still refer to today.

Bibliography

• Aynsley, J. (2004) Pioneers of Modern Graphic Design. Mitchell Beazley
• Bayer, H (1925). Universal type. In Aynsley, J. (2004) Pioneers of Modern Graphic Design. Mitchell Beazley
• Collection Tate. [Online] [Accessed 17 November 2011] Available from World Wide Web: http://www.tate.org.uk/collections/glossary/definition.jsp?entryId=174
• Denzer, A S. Masters of Modernism [Online] [Accessed 28 November 2011] Available from World Wide Web: http://www.mastersofmodernism.com/?page=Modernism
• Gabriele, F.B. (2003) Wiener Wekstatte. Taschen
• Hoffmann J. (1908) Brooch. [Online Image] [Accessed on 16 December 2011] Available from World Wide Web: http://www.studio-international.co.uk/studio-images/wiener_werkstatte/5b.asp
• Hoffmann, J. (1905) The Sitzmaschine Armchair in The Museum of Modern Art, MoMA Highlights. (2004) New York: The Museum of Modern Art
• Lissitzky, E. (1919) Beat The Whites With The Red Wedge. [Online Image] [Accessed on 30 November 2011] Available from World Wide Web: http://www.artcitizens.net/picture/show/id/245/tribe_id/91
• National Gallery Victoria 150 Years. (2011) Vienna Art & Design, Education Resource [Online] [Accessed on 16 December 2011] Available from World Wide Web: http://www.ngv.vic.gov.au/?a=120340
• Richter, H. (1961) Dada Profile. Arche
• Rietveld, G. (1917) The Red Blue Chair. In The Museum of Modern Art, MoMA Highlights. (2004) New York: The Museum of Modern Art
• The Museum of Modern Art, MoMA Highlights. (2004) New York: The Museum of Modern Art
• Whitford, F. (1984) Bauhaus. New York: Thames & Hudson
• Wilk, C. (2008) Modernism: Designing a New World: 1914-1939. V&A Publishing
• Wingler, H.M. (1969) The Bauhaus: Weimar, Dessau, Berlin, Chicago. Cambridge: MIT Press